Emergency Landings

Cancelling the flight makes the premiere example of a safe emergency landing. The next best is a precautionary landing made while you still have visibility, fuel, and an engine. This precautionary landing at least gives you choices that might otherwise be unavailable.

Mechanical Engine Failure

A rapid and total loss of engine oil in flight is indicated by a loss of oil pressure WITHOUT an increase in oil temperature since there will be no oil in the vicinity of the oil temperature probe

One cause of engine failure is due to the failure of some engine component. The other three reasons involve loss of spark, air, or fuel. Ignition failure is seldom total because of duplications in the system. Lack of air is most common due to induction or carburettor icing. Proper fuel management most easily avoids the most common cause of engine failure. Fuel starvation is when fuel is available but not getting to the engine. Fuel exhaustion is when you are out of fuel.

Either can be prevented by:

Crew will determine fuel quantity, type, and quality.
Depart ramp on fullest tank or both.
Confirm both by feel and visually any fuel selector indent setting.
Find out what a selector does in other positions on the ground.
Select new tanks only in vicinity of airports.
Use chart to note places of fuel tank changes.

Other Engine Failures

Excessive in flight idling of the engine will cause the engine to cool to the point that fuel may not vaporize in the carburettor. This drastically leans the mixture and can fail the engine. A sudden throttle movement may make the problem worse. Precautions are to make ground check of idling setting, avoid abrupt throttle movements at all times. Keep the engine warm during glides by frequently opening the throttle for a few seconds.

The essential element of any engine failure is the amount of time you have remaining in the air. You must have a prepared plan to use and a checklist to make sure you follow the plan. The quickest emergency checklist utilizes the cross panel flow. This must be adjusted to each cockpit and aircraft type. The flow of one instrument panel will seldom work on another panel. The flow lets you complete the task flow quickly and even more quickly confirm completion by reference to the checklist.

Weather and its unpredictability is one major area where a pilot's lack of knowledge and proficiency is apt to cause trouble. Typical decisions that cause this difficulty are. "I'll take a look, and then decide type of flight". Trying to climb over or around building clouds. Trying to sneak under or around weather. You may get lucky but just, as likely you will run out of options. The true saying is, "It is better to be down here and wishing you were up there than to be up there wishing you were down here". Never fly into deteriorating weather conditions.

Get the (# 1) checklist and use it. The pilot who does not have an emergency checklist immediately at hand often becomes just a passenger on the way to the ground.

(# 2) Select a speed and trim for it. Gain any altitude you can with excess speed. 

(# 3) Turn to your choice of field based on wind direction. If at high altitude turn toward lower elevations and make your choice at about 3000' AGL (above ground level). 

(# 4) Go through your engine restart procedure but first undo the last thing you did to engine operation before it failed. Check fuel, ignition and air to the engine. All three are necessary but the fuel system is most likely to fail. Magneto switch is the only ignition element available to the pilot. Throttle and carburettor heat are the air controls for the engine.

After you have done all the normal things start being creative. Don't expect what you do to make sense but if it works don't ask why until Sunday. Consider that a primer that has worked loose can cause a rough engine. A partially open primer allows raw fuel to get into the engine intake without atomizing as required for proper combustion.

(# 7) Make your landing crash as slow and as controlled as possible. Fly the airplane. Deceleration impacts increase as the square of the speed. Impact forces at 60 kts are four times those at 30 kts. The cockpit will remain intact to 9-Gs. At 45 kts only 9.4 feet of deceleration will bring you to a stop. Your mission, should you choose to accept it, is to keep you and yours from rattling around inside the cage. (# 8) Prevent fire by shutting off fuel and electricity. When everything stops moving, get out.

Dealing with Engine Failure

Dealing with an engine failure depends on a series of factors, pilot competence, type of aircraft, extent of failure, type of failure, altitude, and general weather/surface conditions. Focus must be on keeping the aircraft aloft and under control. The more altitude the more options you have in acquiring assistance. Emergency checklist is the essential safety aid to be consulted as to what to do.

Apply carburettor heat, open alternate air, switch tanks, turn on fuel pump, check primer pump, select magneto, even moderate vibration calls for immediate shutdown.

The standard emergency for engine failure on takeoff is to land ahead into the wind. Make no more than 30 degrees of heading change to locate the best landing place. An emergency landing into a 10 kt wind at a full flap stall speed of 35 kts gives you a survivable ground contact speed of 25 kts. However, there is another option possible if sufficient altitude has been gained before failure. (A good reason to always takeoff and climb at best rate, Vy) To determine this altitude it is necessary to practice at altitude. At 3000' on a North heading, simulate engine failure and have the student execute a right turn in a 30-degree bank to 240 degrees. Note the altitude loss. Do the same 240-degree turn to the left. Note the altitude loss. Now do both turns with 45 to 60 degree banks. Note altitude lost. Add 50% to the altitudes as a fudge factor for actual use.

Best glide

Best glide is when parasitic drag and induced drag are the least. Induced drag decreases with airspeed, and is highest at low speeds as in slow flight. The best glide always occurs at the Angle of Attack that represents the best lift over drag ratio. This angle of attack is a constant, no matter how the aircraft is loaded.

Risk factors

An airport near mountains
Deficiency of RADAR coverage
Non-precision approach
Limited terrain lighting on approach path

Avoidance

Maintain terrain clearance altitudes
Descend only on published routes
Identify navaids before using
Cross-check your position
Night is the most dangerous time.

Fire is fuelled in aircraft by either gasoline or electrical energy. Black smoke usually indicates gasoline/oil and white smoke + a distinctive door is electrical. Most electrical fires will die when the master switch is cut off. Fuel fires in the engine compartment can be cut off by the mixture, fuel pump and fuel cutoff valve. In any event get on the ground as soon as possible.

Getting to the ground quickly and keeping the fire and smoke from the cockpit requires that an extreme nose high slip be set up. A descent rate of well over 1000-fpm can be achieved with full rudder application. IAS may be kept below 50 in this situation. Release rudder at the last moment and hold the aircraft off the ground to land as slow as possible. A deliberate groundloop will bring the aircraft to a quick but abrupt stop. Get your doors open before you land. This might well be something to practice at altitude with your instructor. Aircraft fires in flight are rare but they do happen.

An oil fire is more serious because you cannot shut off the source of fuel as you could with a gasoline fire. The engine compartment is probably the best engineered part of the aircraft. The firewall will contain the fire unless it gets around the nacelle or firewall. The most likely source of an engine fire is in the exhaust system and in old weakened fuel lines and hoses. The inability to make a preflight inspection of such weak areas is where you, the pilot, must put your trust in a maintenance program that includes periodic hose changes.

An exhaust leak will usually vent heat overboard with the cooling air. If an exhaust fire should occur, the heat can be reduced by enriching the mixture. A preferred option might be to pull the mixture to stop the engine. Once a gasket starts to leak it will only get worse. An oil leak is more likely to be in an area of low airflow.

Aircraft fires on the ground usually occur during the starting procedure. The use of excessive (4 pumps) throttle prime means that the carburettor bowl will overfill. The gasoline flows out the vent in the top, and accumulates at the air intake or elsewhere. As the starter turns the engine a slight backfire can ignite the fuel in the engine compartment. The instant smoke appears, pull the mixture, shutoff the fuel selector valve, continue to crank the engine. If the engine starts, apply full brakes and full power us speed consumption of gasoline in the carburettor. If the engine does not start, continue cranking since the vacuum formed by the pistons will draw flames up the exhaust and use up the fuel in the system by drawing it into the engine. Prepare to exit if this does not work. You might consider alerting ATC to send the airport fire crews. About 6% of all accidents involve in-flight fires. Age of the exhaust system and fuel system hoses is the greatest single cause.

Aircraft Fire Extinguisher

Use only a B-C type the A type corrodes aluminium.

Fire Situations

Start-up fire without engine running
Use starter to keep engine turning but shut off all fuel. Suction of pistons will draw fire into engine and exhaust system.

Start-up fire with engine running
Full throttle and cut off all fuel sources. Uses up fuel and can blow out fire. Electrical off.

Cabin fire
Electrical off, isolate cabin from engine compartment, extinguisher, land.

Engine fire aloft
Mixture off, all fuel off, electrical off, flaps down, isolate cabin, emergency descent
Consider maxim performance slip or power dive to keep fire from cabin.

PTS Emergency Descent

1. Fastest practical descent. within aircraft limitations
2. Clearing turns
3. Making 30-40 degree banks during descent will increase descent rate
4. Descend at structural cruise speed (yellow-green) or full flaps at top of white arc.
5. Divide attention and ignore distractions
6. Checklist
7. End exercise when procedure is established to prevent shock cooling.

Select:

Golf courses
Unploughed brown fields
Grassy fields
Parking lots
Access roads

Avoid

Dark brown (wet) fields
Ploughed and planted fields
Power lines

Soft Field Landing

Use power to control descent rate
Steep approach to improve aim
Full flaps
1.3 x Vref
Land on mains only at minimum speed
Power to keep nose off
Retract flaps.

Ditching

An over water flight is any flight at which your altitude will not allow gliding distance to land. Don't involve yourself in an over water flight without at least a life vest. Wear your life vest because you won't have time to put it on in an emergency.

Phases:

--Recognition that ditching is the only option.
Most vital item is to transmit your location. Include altitude, souls on board and any survival equipment. Open doors and have passengers remove headsets and position themselves with whatever will minimize impact shock.
--Ditching
Aim for the nearest land. This reduces any swim distance. The main change from any other landing is that you are going to get wet. If there is a current, land downstream. Otherwise, land into the wind and across visible swells. Circle to determine best arrival, altitude permitting. This may require compromise between swell and wind directions. Avoid landing across swells. Look for smooth areas.

Full flaps with high-wing planes. Retractables, gear up. Low-wing with flaps up. Avoid the absolute full stall landing. Wings parallel to swell surface. Windshield may collapse; aircraft may skip or flip. Remain in crash position until motion stops.

Getting out of the plane

Make your life vest as tight as you can before ditching. A loose vest will funnel water into your nose. Make sure passengers have re-fastened their seat harness. Keep your shoes on. Don't inflate a vest until free of the aircraft.

You may be able to exit low-wing on the wing. Get as far from aircraft as possible. You may not be able to open doors of high-wing until submerged. Don't undo harness until you are ready to leave with doors open. Take no more than three deep breaths before leaving. Avoid hyperventilating. Keep one hand gripping on something as a reference point in the cockpit. Now, release your belt. Once clear of the aircraft follow the bubbles. Don't re-enter aircraft, it will sink without warning.

Water Survival

Jerk lanyard to inflate life jacket. Hypothermia is biggest threat. The heavier your clothing the better. Avoid movement to conserve warmth. Try to signal.

Control Failure

Unless situation is critical it is best to do nothing in the event of control failure. Elevators can jam due to external object. This is just as likely to occur in the cockpit, as it is in the control itself. Should rudder fail you can still turn with obvious yaw. Doors can act as rudders. Broken throttle should result in some power. Remaining power can be controlled with mixture, magnetos. Making turns with rudder can compensate for aileron failure. Elevator failure can be partially controlled by trim; power can give partial control. No flaps should be used when you experience a control failure.

Birds

The Bay Area is in the western migratory bird flyway. Spring and Fall seasons are the high strike probability periods. Over 50% of strikes are sea gulls. 70% of strikes are in daylight. 90% of these are below 3000' and near an airport. Avoid game refuge areas. Airport/Facility Directory and NOTAMS warn of birds. With the closing of the garbage dump near CCR the bird problem is much less. During the migratory seasons fly with your landing light on. Bird strikes are just as likely at night as during the day.

Bird impact force is the square of the impact velocity and even at G. A. speeds will have the effect of a 20-mm cannon shell. Windshield penetration is most likely to produce an accident. Birds will instinctively dive when they feel threatened by an airplane. Climb, but not into a stall. A bird strike fatality is 10 times more likely to occur due to the pilot's loss of aircraft control after the strike. Pilot error is the problem.

Estimated 6000 bird strikes a year. Over half occur below 100 feet. 99% happen below 2500. Record bird sighting is at 37,000'. 805 occur during takeoff and landing. 34 civil crashes and 200 known deaths resulting from bird strikes. $750 million damage. Gulls cause 1/3 of strikes.

Early morning and just before dark is the period of greatest strike danger. Less than 10% of strikes happen above 3,000 feet. Nearly 80% occur within 500 feet of the ground. Over 60% occur within 100 feet AGL. Night is occasion for 25% of strikes. July to November is worst period.

Birds highest speed can be obtained by diving when they fold wings. Pilot should anticipate this reaction and climb. Showing lights and strobes gives birds earlier warning.

Avoidance:

Slow down in vicinity of birds.
Don't takeoff toward grounded birds.
Heat your windshield in vicinity of birds.
Avoid low flight over landfill and marshes.
Over fly airports early morning and evenings.
Use lights.  The bird will see the light before seeing the airplane.
Check NOTAMS
Consider safety goggles in vicinity of birds.

Defence is noting notams. Fly high during migratory season. Only one percent of strikes occur above 2500'. Most birds fly in day time. Some do fly at night. The larger the bird the slower the wing beat. Use aircraft lights and strobes when in bird country. Fly above birds when possible. In bird territory slow down.

Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

Taxiing is the most likely time for FOD to occur. The runup area should be free of any loose objects and never run the engine over loose gravel while stopped. The propeller vortex will suck up rocks into the blades if it is not moving.

FOD inside the aircraft can become a problem when encountering turbulence. Loose items on the floor can jam controls; spilled fluids can short out electrical components. Tie down what can be tied down if there is any possibility, and there is always a possibility, of FOD in the cockpit.

Wildlife

The FAA makes recommendations as to altitudes above wildlife areas but the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service has laws that are not part of your training. The Airborne Hunting Act prohibits harassment of wildlife anywhere. Whatever the reasons for flights near wildlife there is potential for a problem with the government.

Passenger Emergency Checklist

Using the radio to get help:

1. Select a radio on the audio panel at the top.
2. Try to use the existing frequency or change to l121.5 which is the emergency frequency
3. Use the push-to-talk button as you talk.
In-flight emergencies are extremely rare.
4 Neither you nor the pilot will be prepared for an emergency.

Passenger checklist: